Recent presidential elections in Kyrgyzstan were widely praised as a democratic milestone in the history of the country and the entire region. However, a closer look at assessments by international election observation missions and at events prior to the election discloses numerous shortcomings and irregularities. Patronage networks, financial and administrative resources played a crucial role for electoral success, making the Kyrgyz presidential elections an example of free and competitive, but not fair elections. Instead of further democratization, elections bore testimony to consolidating hybrid regime structures argues Ann-Sophie Gast in this guest contribution to the WZB Democracy Blog.
Archiv der Kategorie: Defekte Demokratie
Herbst der Demokratie?
Link
Direktor Wolfgang Merkel mit einer Vorlesung in der Teleakademie des SWR ĂŒber Trump, Brexit und die Frage nach einen Herbst der Demokratie?
Brexit, Trumps Wahlsieg in den USA, der Rechtspopulist Hofer scheitert nur knapp an der Wahl zum BundesprĂ€sidenten in Ăsterreich. Rechtspopulisten befinden sich dies- und jenseits des Atlantiks in einem beĂ€ngstigenden Vormarsch. In Ungarn und Polen sitzen sie lĂ€ngst in der Regierung. Gleichzeitig hat der deregulierte globale Kapitalismus die demokratische Gestaltungskraft der Nationalstaaten ausgehöhlt.
Demokratie unter Stress. Garantieren Wahlen demokratische LegitimitÀt?
Sinkende WahlbeteiliÂgung, Mitgliederverluste der Parteien und schwindendes Vertrauen in deÂmokratische ReprĂ€sentanten stellen die Reputation demokratischer WahÂlen zunehmend infrage. Mitunter ist sogar zu hören, die Wahldemokratie sei dem Tode geweiht. Diese apokalypÂtische Sichtweise verkennt, dass WahÂlen nach wie vor der zentrale LegitiÂmationsmechanismus der Demokratie sind â und dass die bislang diskutierÂten Alternativen (Volksabstimmungen, ReprĂ€sentation durch Los oder durch nicht gewĂ€hlte Experten oder NGOs) weit gröĂere LegitimitĂ€tsprobleme aufwerfen als der â durchaus nicht perfekte â demokratische Wahlmodus.
âDie Demokratie wird nicht kollabierenâ
Wolfgang Merkel im Interview mit dem Ăsterreichischen Nachrichtenmagazin Profil ĂŒber Rechtspopulismus, moralische Ăberheblichkeit und Sebastian Kurz als konservative Galionsfigur in Europa.
The New Dictatorships
Hannah Arendtâs The Origins of Totalitarianism, which appeared in 1951, still bore the deep imprint of the recently dismantled National Socialist terror regime and the most extreme excesses of Stalinism. The distinguishing features of totalitarianism as a regime type were then readily identifiable: an elaborate ideology of domination plus terrorism, both of which characterized the »short twentieth centuryâs« history of political rule and warfare. Both Hannah Arendt and Harvard University scholar Carl Joachim Friedrich distinguished carefully between authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Authoritarian regimes, Arendt said, curtailed freedom, whereas totalitarian rule did away with it entirely. In essence, the notion of totalitarianism focused on the untrammeled control that that those in power wielded over their subjects. Under such circumstances not even the state should be regarded as the principal locus of power. According to Arendt that role was played by the party â and of course its leader â that articulated the official word-view. Both totalitarian systems sought to legitimize their rule by deploying a grand ideological narrative, whether of the »classless society« in the case of Stalinism, or »the superiority of our race and nation« in the case of Nazism.
From the very outset, neither the concept nor the theory of totalitarianism was free of inconsistencies and over-hasty analogies. It was always a problematic move to equate (at least implicitly) a Promethean idea of the »realm of freedom« (Karl Marx) with the darkness of a National Socialist ideology of annihilation. Of course, in practice these regimes displayed certain parallels â despite the dissimilarities â in respect to the uses of terror. Both erected Leviathan-like apparatuses that destroyed freedom and carried out deadly repression against Jews and class enemies, respectively.
During the Cold War the concept of totalitarianism continued to lose analytic clarity as it was used prematurely to describe all communist regimes and, increasingly, any dictatorship whatsoever. Not infrequently, it degenerated into a political rallying cry. In reality, truly totalitarian regimes were not that common in the 20 th century. Nevertheless, the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1956, Nazi Germany from 1934/38 to 1945, some of the Eastern European satellite regimes in the 50s, China from the early 50s up until Mao Zedongâs death in 1976, the genocidal Pol Pot regime in Cambodia, and the autocratic Kim family dynasty in North Korea furnish irrefutable examples of totalitarian rule. In the early years of the 21st century the Peopleâs Republic of North Korea is the only totalitarian regime left. The theocratic Islamic regimes in Iran and Saudi Arabia or of the Taliban in Afghanistan never have become fully totalitarian. Although their fundamentalist dogmas were intended to penetrate deeply into the everyday lives of the faithful, those governments lacked the mature state development that would have allowed them to translate their ambitions of complete control into a full-blown totalitarian reality.
Dictatorships in the 21st century
The long-lasting third wave of democratization that culminated in the collapse of the Soviet empire at the end of the 20 th century altered the national and international conditions for political rule. If we disregard the more radicalized versions of Islam that have been emerging in some places, grand ideological narratives of political rule have disappeared. Given the globalized economic and communications networks that have emerged, it is an anachronistic fiction to imagine that autocracies could hermetically seal off a zone of political control. Political authority increasingly requires forms of justification that take freedom, political participation, and respect for human rights into account. New forms of autocratic rule came into being that scholars now classify under the heading of electoral authoritarianism, i.e., autocracies with elections. Such elections are quite distinct from those that were held in the Eastern Bloc in the era of »really existing socialism,« in which voter turnout exceeded 99 % and the communist candidates and those of their satellite parties typically won about 99 % of the votes cast. That kind of election is now a quaint relic of the past. Today, elections in authoritarian regimes in Africa or Asia no longer can be so easily managed as they were in the former Eastern Bloc. To be sure, they are manipulated, orchestrated, and rigged, but they also offer the opposition a welcome opportunity to mobilize, make alliances, and appeal to a national and international public. The new authoritarian desire to establish a formally democratic residue of legitimacy in the domestic and foreign arenas carries with it a risk to the legitimacy of those in power.
Formerly clear boundaries between prototypical democracies and dictatorships have grown increasingly blurred. Leaving aside merely polemical use of terms, who would want to say exactly which of the following regimes should be counted as an autocracy or merely classified as a defective democracy: Russia under Vladimir Putin (or Boris Yelstin), the Turkey of Recep Tayyip Erdogan, the contemporary Ukraine, Venezuela, the Philippines, or Singapore? Scholarly research on regimes has grown more cautious. Increasingly it avoids clear typologies and locates really existing regimes along a continuum between the ideal of democracy under the rule of law on the one hand and »perfect« dictatorship on the other. Such classifications thus leave many political regimes in a gray area between the ideal-types. Accordingly, researchers in the field are now talking about »gray area regimes.« These are then subdivided into hybrid regimes (Russia), »democraduras« (Venezuela), or defective democracies (Hungary). Furthermore, the gray area regimes are more stable than is commonly assumed, in that they do not move over time in the direction of becoming closed dictatorships or open democracies. They have long since established their own equilibrium, one that is sensitive to both historical and political contexts. Today, Putin, Erdogan, and OrbĂĄn enjoy greater popularity among their respective citizen bodies â and the non-elites within them â than the chancellor of Germany or the President of Franceâs Fifth Republic, although both of the latter govern democratic countries under the rule of law. This paradox is one aspect of the postmodern jigsaw puzzle: all across the globe forms of political authority are growing more differentiated.
How stable are the new dictatorships?
If we assume the tripartite division of political regimes into autocracies, hybrid regimes, and democracies, we can distinguish, among the 200 or so countries in the world, about 65 democracies under the rule of law and 45 unvarnished autocracies. Of the remainder, the majority are hybrid regimes in all of their different permutations.
So how stable are political regimes really? How durable are dictatorships? Statistically speaking, over the past 60 years democracies have been the most stable, followed by dictatorships, and finally by hybrid regimes. What is the reason for the relative stability of dictatorial regimes? In a study recently carried out at the Berlin Social Science Center we assumed that political rule in dictatorships, as incidentally in hybrid regimes as well, rests on three pillars: legitimation, repression, and cooptation.
Legitimation always derives from two sources, one normative and the other performance-based. Anti-liberalism, racism, nationalism, religiously anachronistic ideas of salvation, as well as Marxist visionary schemes all can generate at least temporary normative approval among those on the receiving end of political rule. However, in the early years of the 21st century fascist and communist ideologies have lost much of their appeal. If any ideologies still have the ability to create strong ties among their adherents nowadays, it would be the variants of Islamic political fundamentalism. But for them, restrictions on basic human rights are part of the canon of principles upon which their claims to rule depend. And, for that very reason, in the long run the wellsprings of their promises of salvation will likely dry up and the enchantment of their world will fade in the cold light of a repressive reality. Because the normative side of legitimation is sapped in this way, dictatorial regimes rely for support especially on their performance in the areas of the economy, security, and order. But autocratic regimes also face risks if the economy and society modernize too rapidly. When that happens, middle classes form, workers unionize, educational levels increase, civil society emerges, and discourses get underway that invite broader political participation. However, this is not a trend that culminates inevitably in a successful process of democratization in the way that modernization theory optimistically still claims. That other outcomes are possible is confirmed by diverse countries such as Singapore, the Peopleâs Republic of China or the petro-dictatorships of the Gulf. The latter of course maintain enormous numbers of Southeast Asian slave laborers deprived of all rights, which enables them to evade the challenge of dealing with a self-confident domestic working class.
Second, autocracies rely on repression, which can assume different forms and levels of intensity. We distinguish in our research project (»Why do dictatorships survive?«) between »soft« and »hard« repression, although their boundaries are shifting. Whereas the first of these primarily aims to restrict political rights such as the freedoms of assembly, expression, press, and employment, the latter is designed mainly to attack the core of human rights, such as the right to life, physical integrity, and the liberty of the individual. It can be demonstrated empirically that elites in authoritarian systems of rule frequently react to threats to the status quo with intensified repression. Yet repression alone is scarcely capable of stabilizing a political regime in the long run. This is so because a great deal of legitimacy is being sacrificed. When repression is ratcheted up, its deterrent power is enhanced, but simultaneously there is a loss of legitimation and thereby of popular consent. High levels of hard repression are expensive, and ultimately they undermine the foundations of political authority. During the period that we examined (1950-2008), statistical evidence shows that soft repression was the most successful factor in stabilizing hundreds of dictatorships.
The third pillar of political domination is cooptation. It may enable elites in autocratic systems of rule to induct influential actors and groups outside the regime proper into the inner circle of the dictatorship. Strategically important elites of this type are generally recruited from among the economic elite, the security services, and the military. They are usually offered offices, political privileges, resources, and economic concessions as a quid pro quo for their loyalty. Corruption, clientelism, and patrimonial networks are their instruments.
Nevertheless, the availability of resources places limits on the duration and extent of »purchased« collaboration of broad groups with the regime. In our analysis we show that weaknesses in one of the pillars of rule can be offset by shoring up the other ones. Yet in some instances cracks in one pillar can overburden the others. Then spaces of protest open up that, if employed on a grand scale, can lead to the collapse of the entire regime. Of course, there are no guarantees that the rule of law and democracy will ensue from its demise. The many unsuccessful processes of transformation in the eastern portions of Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and the Arab Spring all confirm this.
It is also possible to overestimate the stabilizing influence of cooptation. As a rule, the ideal equilibrium state for the survival of dictatorships would combine a high level of legitimation derived from ideology and performance, the least possible application of »hard« repression, extensive »soft« repression, and a moderate degree of cooptation. Singapore approaches that equilibrium state most closely, while China is clearly headed in that direction. But even hybrid regimes such as Putinâs Russia are not so far removed from an equilibrium of this sort.
Francis Fukuyamaâs thesis that we are witnessing the irreversible triumph of democracy (1991) proved to be a half-baked fantasy. The envisioned export of democracy from the West to the rest and of military regime change in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Libya has failed dismally. The free societies of the West, East, and South will have to continue living and negotiating with dictatorships. There are no panaceas. Trade-offs have already been programmed in. A magical polygon still has not been devised that would accommodate values, interests, human rights, economy, democracy, and stability. There are no short cuts in dealing with dictatorships. It will take tedious negotiations, value-based pragmatism, and the proverbial long, hard road to get there.
Wolfgang Merkel
directs the division »Democracy and Democratization« at the Berlin Social Science Center and is professor of political science at the Humboldt University in Berlin. His most recent publication, by Springer VS, is an edited volume entitled Demokratie und Krise: Zum schwierigen VerhÀltnis von Theorie und Empirie.
First published as »Die neuen Diktaturen« in Neue Gesellschaft / Frankfurter Hefte 11/2016:17-20.
Reading recommendation: Populism and democracy
The online publication the Conversation recently started an informative and interesting series on the phenomena of populism.
The series also includes contributions and analysis from members of our research unit on democracy and democratization at the WZB.
In the latest post of the series, which sets out to explore the origins of the rise of populism and its complex relationship with democracy Thamy Pogrebinschi, John Keane and Wolfgang Merkel contributed their perspectives on the recent or not so recent development of rising populism in democracies. Below you will find the short contributions of the three. If you are interested in what the other contributers had to say you should check out the above hyperlinks to the original post on the Conversation.
Thamy Pogrebinschi sets out to differentiate variants of contemporary populisms and concludes that rather than an ideology populism itself serves as a politically empty cocoon that ultimately is characterised by its appeal to popular souvereignity and actually points to the underlying problematique of capitalism and democracy. She writes:
The concept of populism is highly contestable, but clarifying the difference between its left-wing and right-wing variants is both the best and the worst starting point for making sense of its contours.
Populism is not an ideology. Yet populism of the left and populism of the right produce different sets of ideas, identities and effects. Populism can be so politically empty that it joins forces with ideologies as different as socialism and nationalism. Populist discourses can thus favour exclusion, or inclusion.
The experiences of Latin America and Europe illustrate this difference well. In Latin America, populism has tried to include workers and middle class citizens socially dislocated by capitalism. In contemporary Europe, populism is attempting to exclude people dislocated by wars, and by capitalism in different parts of the world.
In both cases, however, the appeal to popular sovereignty exposes the deep tension between democracy and capitalism. We should therefore care less about definitions, and ask the real question: is representative democracy now so overshadowed by capitalism that it is no longer able to make room for the popular sovereignty upon which it was founded?
John Keane highlights the historical dimension of the complex and problematic relationship between democracy and populism going back to the greek concept ‘dÄmokrateo’ concluding that what is necessary to tackle today’s populist movements is a radikal egalitarian and redistributive turn in order top restore faith in our democracies. He writes:
Ancient Greeks knew democracy could be snuffed out by rich and powerful aristoi backed by demagogues ruling the people in their own name. They even had a verb (now obsolete) for describing how people are ruled while seeming to rule. They called it dÄmokrateo. Itâs the word we need for making sense of the contradiction that cuts through contemporary populism.
Populism is a democratic phenomenon. Mobilised through available democratic freedoms, itâs a public protest by millions of people (the demos) who feel annoyed, powerless, no longer âheldâ in the arms of society.
The analyst D W Winnicott used the term to warn that people who feel dropped strike back. Thatâs the populist moment when humiliated people lash out in support of demagogues promising them dignity. They do so not because they ânaturallyâ crave leaders, or yield to the inherited âfascism in us allâ.
Populism attracts people because it raises their expectations of betterment. But thereâs a price. In exchange for promises of popular sovereignty, populism easily mass produces figures like Napoleon Bonaparte, Benito Mussolini, Viktor OrbĂĄn and Recep Tayyip ErdoÄan.
And in contrast to the 19th-century populist politics of enfranchisement, todayâs populism has exclusionary effects. The dÄmokrateo of it all isnât stoppable by anodyne calls for âdialogueâ, or false hopes populism will somehow burn itself out. Whatâs needed is something more radically democratic: a new politics of equitable redistribution of power, wealth and life chances that shows populism to be a form of counterfeit democracy.
Once upon a time, such political redistribution was called âdemocracyâ, or âwelfare stateâ, or âsocialismâ.
Wolfgang Merkel argues that the emerging right wing populism in Europe has three main causes: (1) discontent with European integration; (2) economic exclusion; (3) disaffection and fear of influx of migrants. He thus sees the rise of right wing populism as a rebellion of the disenfranchised and concludes that politicians from established political parties should aim to listen to the disenfrenchised and grant them a voice. He writes:
From a normative standpoint, things are clear: cosmopolitans who uphold equality, global justice, ethno-religious tolerance and human rights cannot accept right-wing populism. Nationalism, chauvinism, ethno-religious intolerance are incommensurable with the values of an open and tolerant society.
Things are less clear when we try to explain the rise of right-wing populist parties. People who belong to the enlightened, cosmopolitan, middle and upper classes often argue that right-wing populism is the result of a demagoguery that is especially attractive to uneducated people from the lower classes. This explanation is not just inadequate; it bespeaks arrogant ignorance.
Right-wing populism in Europe has three causes: a general discontent with European integration; economic exclusion; and disaffection and fear of a large influx of migrants and refugees. Large swathes of the lower middle class complain of their exclusion from public discourse. The neo-liberal version of globalisation and the general failure of the moderate left to address the distributive question have created feelings of impotence and marginalisation among the lower classes.
Right-wing populism is thus a rebellion of the disenfranchised. The establishment parties have arguably committed serious political errors. Itâs high time that they leave their fortress of normative arrogance and grant a democratic voice to the non-represented. If they fail to do so, right-wing populists will transform our democracies: they will become more parochial, intolerant and polarised.
The Conversation kindly allowed us to repost the above statements. Here is the link to the original post.
Call for papers â Special issue of Politics and Governance: âWhy choice matters: Revisiting and comparing measures of democracyâ
post by special issue guest editors Dr. Heiko Giebler (WZB Berlin Social Science Center, heiko.giebler@wzb.eu); Dr. Saskia Ruth (University of Zurich, saskia.ruth@zda.uzh.ch); Dag Tanneberg (University of Potsdam, dag.tanneberg@uni-potsdam.de)
This peer-reviewed special issue of Politics & Governance (an open-access journal) invites articles that compare at least two widely used measures of democracy to discuss one or more of the following topics: (1) differences in theoretical grounding and conceptualization of democracy; (2) differences in data choice and/or the effects of different rules of aggregation; or (3) how different measures of democracy impact substantive research questions. Whereas other publications have summarized the field of democracy measurement in broad strokes, this special issue will help scholars to make more informed choices between alternative measures of democracy for their own research program.Â
Timeline:
Deadline for proposals: December 31st, 2016
Deadline for 1st drafts: May 25th, 2017
Authors workshop: early June 2017
Deadline for final submissions: September 2017
Publication of the special issue: February 2018
Content:
Over the past 25 years, the field of democracy measurement has grown tremendously. The continued scientific and public demand for measures of democracy generated an unprecedented wealth of measurement instruments all aiming to capture democracy. Yet, summarizing the development of the field since the 1960s Bollen (1991, 4) found scant evidence for a âsmooth evolution towards clear theoretical definitions and finely calibrated instrumentsâ. One decade later Munck and Verkuilen (2002, 28) still concluded that âno single index offers a satisfactory response to all three challenges of conceptualization, measurement, and aggregationâ. But all is certainly not lost in measuring democracy. Rather, scholars have incorporated much of the critique. As a result, social sciences enjoy a vast supply of high quality approaches to measuring democracy. Today, the challenge is less to select a sound index of democracy and more to understand the theoretical and methodological differences between them.
This special issue in Politics & Governance (peer-reviewed and open access; indexing: Web of Science (ESCI), Scopus, and other databases) aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of those differences in order to help scholars make more informed choices between alternative measures of democracy. It invites papers that analyze and discuss the substantive consequences of differences between at least two widely used measures of democracy. The list of measures includes but is not limited to Bertelsmann Transformation Index (BTI), Democracy Barometer, Democracy & Dictatorship, Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy Index, Freedom House, Polity IV, Sustainable Governance Indicators (SGI), Unified Democracy Scores (UDS), Vanhanen, V-Dem, Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI), etc. Contributed articles should deal with at least one of the following three topics:
(1) Differences in theoretical grounding and conceptualization of democracy measures
The conceptual differences between graded measures of democracy are seldom in the focus of research. However, these can be quite substantial as in the cases of the Democracy Barometer and the Unified Democracy Scores. Whereas the former advances a detailed conceptualization of democracy, the latter projects several different indices of democracy unto a single latent variable. Alternatively, some measures follow a minimalistic definition of democracy while others go as far as including outcomes of democratic rule. What do such differences mean for theoretical grounding, conceptualization, and empirical analyses in democracy related research? Which measures can and should be used for which substantive research questions?
(2) Differences in data choice and rules of aggregation
On the one hand much in measuring democracy revolves around the nature and scaling of appropriate indicators. For instance, one key debate pits observables against expert judgments (Alvarez et al. 1996, Ulfelder 2006, Schedler 2012). But, do observables make better or do they merely make different data? Conversely, do expert judgments achieve higher validity or are they just biased in different ways? On the other hand, existing measures of democracy differ tremendously in their aggregation rules, ranging from necessary and sufficient conditions (Democracy & Dictatorship) to weighted sums (Freedom House, Polity IV, Democracy Barometer), and latent variable measurement models (UDS, V-DEM). What substantive differences do those alternatives imply? Can we in fact achieve greater confidence in empirical results by varying rules of aggregation (Munck and Verkuilen 2002, 25)?
(3) How different measures of democracy impact substantive research questions
Using Freedom House and Polity IV data, Casper and Tufis (2003) demonstrate that the choice of index matters for the study of democratization even though both measures are highly correlated. Do those discrepancies exist when using the Vanhanen, V-DEM, UDS, or Democracy Barometer data, too? Moreover, do they affect results in other important areas of research such as the domestic democratic peace, economic growth, and international conflict behavior? Valid contributions also include replication studies of influential publications using different measures of democracy.
Instructions for Authors
Authors interested in submitting a paper for this special issue are kindly requested to consult the journal’s editorial policies (here). Please send an abstract of about 250 words to any of the guest editors by December 31, 2016 latest. The guest editors will contact prospective contributors in late January 2017 with more detailed information. A two-day authorsâ workshop is scheduled for early June 2017 and it will take place in either Berlin or Zurich. The guest editors are in the process of acquiring funds for covering travelling and accommodation costs.
Finally, interested authors are kindly requested to check that their institutions are able to cover open access publication costs of EUR 800. If an institution cannot cover the publication costs, the guest editors will provide assistance to acquire alternative funding.
References
Alvarez, Michael, Jose Antonio Cheibub, Adam Przeworski, and Fernando Limongi. 1996. “Classifying Political Regimes.” Studies in Comparative International Development 31 (2):3â36.
Bollen, Kenneth A. 1991. “Political Democracy: Conceptual and Measurement Traps.” In On measuring democracy, edited by Alex Inkeles, 3-20. New Brunswick; London: Transaction Publishers.
Casper, Gretchen, and Claudiu Tufis. 2003. “Correlation Versus Interchangeability: The Limited Robustness of Empirical Findings on Democracy Using Highly Correlated Data Sets.” Political Analysis 11 (2):196â203.
Munck, Gerardo L., and Jay Verkuilen. 2002. “Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy.” Comparative Political Studies 35 (1):5â34.
Schedler, Andreas. 2012. “Judgment and Measurement in Political Science.” Perspectives on Politics 10 (1):21â36.
Ulfelder, Jay. 2006. “Do “Observables” Really Produce Better Data?: Problems with the PACL Data Set for the Analysis of Regime Survival.” http://ssrn.com/abstract=1707362.
Trump und die Demokratie
Dieser Beitrag erschien zuerst bei der Online Zeitschrift IPG – Internationale Politik und Gesellschaft.
Die ĂŒberschieĂende Moral des Kosmopolitismus spielt den Rechtspopulisten in die HĂ€nde. Zeit zum Umdenken.
Gefragt, wen er, wĂ€re er Amerikaner, am 8. November 2016 wĂ€hlen wĂŒrde, antwortete er ohne auch nur einen Wimperschlag zu zögern: âTrump. I am just horrified about him, but Hillary is the true dangerâ. Er, das ist nicht irgendwer, es ist Slavoj ĆœiĆŸek, der neomarxistische Philosoph der letzten Dekade. Ein Popstar im Internet. Wir können annehmen, dass ĆœiĆŸek am Morgen nach der Wahl von seiner eigenen kĂŒhnen Empfehlung nur entsetzt gewesen sein kann.
Das Unsagbare ist geschehen: Donald Trump wurde am 8. November 2016 zum 45. PrĂ€sidenten der USA gewĂ€hlt. Der New Yorker MilliardĂ€r, Bankrotteur, Chauvinist, Sexist, der Mann mit der Baseball-MĂŒtze und den schlechten Manieren, eine Art groĂmĂ€ulige Ich-AG ist nun der wichtigste Politiker der (westlichen) Welt. Wird er die Welt so katastrophal verĂ€ndern, wie dies sein Republikanischer VorgĂ€nger George W. Bush einst tat? Was lĂ€sst sich aus der Kampagne, den Wahlen, Trumps politischem Programm ĂŒber den Zustand der Demokratie in Amerika aussagen? Ist Trump ein amerikanisches PhĂ€nomen, oder halten die USA den EuropĂ€ern nur wieder den Spiegel ihrer Zukunft vor, wie dies Alexis de Tocqueville in seiner berĂŒhmten Schrift âĂber die Demokratie in Amerikaâ geschrieben hat. Ist die Wahl Trumps die Revolte jener, die sich schon lĂ€nger nicht mehr reprĂ€sentiert fĂŒhlen von der etablierten Politik, der âpolitischen Klasseâ, den Medien, den öffentlichen Diskursen und einem Wirtschaftssystem, dass fortwĂ€hrend mehr Ungleichheit erzeugt? Breitet sich der Rechtspopulismus nun auch jenseits des Atlantiks aus?
Die Kampagne
Eines der Kernargumente der Postdemokratievertreter von Colin Crouch bis Jacques RanciĂšre lautet: Wahlen sind im postdemokratischen Zeitalter zu einem inhaltslosen Ritual verkommen. Sie sind nicht das Herz der Demokratie, sondern nur deren Simulation. Inhalte spielen keine Rolle; und wenn doch, dann sind die Programme der politischen âKontrahentenâ nicht mehr zu unterscheiden. Wie so manches an den Thesen zur Postdemokratie stimmt auch dieses nur zur HĂ€lfte. In der Tat waren die politischen Programme weder in den Wahlreden noch in der medialen Berichterstattung von Bedeutung. Es dominierten die SchlammwĂŒrfe auf die Person des Gegners: âCrooked Hillaryâ, korrupte Hillary, sie gehöre nicht ins WeiĂe Haus, sondern ins GefĂ€ngnis; sie lĂŒge, betrĂŒge und bereichere sich mit ihrem Mann ĂŒber die Vermengung von gemeinnĂŒtziger Stiftung und persönlichen Rednerauftritten, die fĂŒr Bill Clinton in Katar oder von den ReprĂ€sentanten der Wall Street MillionenertrĂ€ge brachten. Mit gleicher MĂŒnze zahlte die Kandidatin zurĂŒck: âDonaldâ sei ein Sexist, Rassist und Chauvinist, er belĂ€stige Frauen, beleidige Muslime, spotte ĂŒber Behinderte, nennt lateinamerikanische Immigranten Vergewaltiger, diskriminiere Afroamerikaner âwie schon sein Vaterâ und sei ein chronischer Steuerhinterzieher. Die demokratischen Wahlen sind mit der Auseinandersetzung im amerikanischen Herbst 2016 an einem historischen Tiefpunkt angelangt.
Unzutreffend an der postdemokratischen Vermutung ist, dass es keine programmatischen Unterschiede gibt. Trumps und Clintons Wahlprogramme unterschieden sich. Trump folgt alten neoliberalen Rezepten: Steuern senken, dann investierten die Investoren, die Wirtschaft wachse und die Jobs kehrten aus Mexiko, China, Japan oder Europa zurĂŒck. Die VorschlĂ€ge folgen der berĂŒhmten Serviettenskizze, mit der Reagans Chefökonom Arthur B. Laffer den damaligen PrĂ€sidenten zu Beginn von dessen Amtszeit zu ĂŒberzeugen vermochte, dass mit einer Steuersenkung nicht nur die Investitionen und das Sozialprodukt, sondern auch die Staatseinnahmen stiegen. George W. Bush, ebenfalls ein ökonomischer Laie, folgte ein Jahrzehnt spĂ€ter noch einmal dem verfĂŒhrerisch einfachen Rezept. In beiden FĂ€llen fĂŒhrte dies zu den gröĂten VerschuldungszuwĂ€chsen, die die amerikanische Demokratie bis dato gesehen hatte. Und jetzt Donald J. Trump â den fiskalpolitischen Tragödien droht nun die Farce zu folgen.
Der Sozialstaat ist in den USA unterentwickelt. DafĂŒr gibt es historische GrĂŒnde: die Unantastbarkeit des Privateigentums, die Ideologie des Minimalstaats, die SchwĂ€che der Gewerkschaften, das Fehlen einer Arbeiterpartei und die Etablierung eines besonders rĂŒden, ungezĂ€hmten Kapitalismus. So war es einer der Reformerfolge der Amtszeiten von Barack Obama, als der PrĂ€sident gegen die wĂŒtend destruktive Politik der Republikanischen Opposition einen Zugang zur Krankenversicherung durch den âPatient Protection and Affordable Care Actâ (2010) auch fĂŒr die unteren Schichten schuf. FĂŒr Trump ist âObamacareâ nichts als ein Desaster. So wird er versuchen, mit dem groĂen RĂŒckhalt seiner AnhĂ€nger selbst diese bescheidenen sozialstaatlichen Reformen zurĂŒckzudrehen.
Im AuĂenhandel versprechen Trumps VorschlĂ€ge Irritationen, wenn nicht das Risiko eines Handelskriegs. Es seien China, Europa und das âDesaster NAFTAâ, die den Amerikanern die Jobs raubten, so das einfache ökonomische Weltbild des Republikanischen Populisten. Freihandelsabkommen sollen zurĂŒckgefahren und Produkte aus Asien und Europa mit Strafzöllen belegt werden, folgten sie nicht den Wirtschaftsvorstellungen der USA. Es ist die seltsame Mischung von neoliberaler Deregulierung zuhause und protektionistischen Drohungen nach auĂen, die der MilliardĂ€r seinen Landsleuten vorschlĂ€gt und dem Rest der Welt androht.
Die gröĂten Fragezeichen bestehen in der AuĂenpolitik. Trump, ein völliger Laie, lieĂ hier bisher keinerlei Profil erkennen. Hillary Clinton war da deutlicher, in Wort â leider auch in Tat. Unter den Demokraten zĂ€hlt sie zu den Falken. Sie befĂŒrwortete den herbei gelogenen, völkerrechtswidrigen Krieg gegen den Irak unter George W. Bush und sprach sich fĂŒr die Ăberdehnung des UN-Mandats gegen Gaddafis Libyen aus. Die Folge war nicht nur ein unmandatierter âregime changeâ, sondern, wie schon in Afghanistan und im Irak, auch die Zerstörung der Staatlichkeit des Landes. Ein schwerer Fehler. Macht, so bezeichnete das der amerikanische Politikwissenschaftler Karl Deutsch einmal, ist das âPrivileg, nicht lernen zu mĂŒssenâ. GegenĂŒber Russland folgte die AuĂenministerin der Kalten Kriegslogik des âcontainmentâ, der EindĂ€mmung, aber auch der fortgesetzten DemĂŒtigung der zerbrochenen Weltmacht. Keine weitsichtige Politik, weder fĂŒr die Ukraine noch fĂŒr Europa oder Deutschland. Donald Trump hat im Wahlkampf Sympathien fĂŒr Putin gezeigt, fast ein Kapitalverbrechen in den USA. Ob dies nur eine MĂ€nnerbĂŒndelei autoritĂ€rer FĂŒhrerpersönlichkeiten war oder der Beginn einer neuen Ost- und Entspannungspolitik sein wird, bleibt mit Skepsis abzuwarten.
FĂŒr China und Europa aber könnte es ungemĂŒtlich werden. Von Europa dĂŒrften die USA gröĂere BeitrĂ€ge zu Finanzierung der NATO, RĂŒstung und MilitĂ€reinsĂ€tzen einfordern. Das Vorgehen gegen europĂ€ische (deutsche) Konzerne mit der Waffe der Justiz, eine beliebte Form amerikanischer Industriepolitik, könnte mit Trump in eine weitere Runde gehen. Ob Trump versuchen wird, die autoritĂ€r-etatistische Politik des Waren- und Kapitalexports Chinas zu bekĂ€mpfen, bleibt ebenfalls abzuwarten. Hier dĂŒrften die USA erneut erfahren, was âimperial overstretchâ, die Ăberdehnung imperialer MachtansprĂŒche, bedeutet.
Ăber die Demokratie in Amerika
Donald Trump hat die Wahlen gewonnen. Dazu stellen die Republikaner nun die Mehrheit in Senat und ReprĂ€sentantenhaus. Das semi-demokratische Mehrheitswahlrecht (the winner takes it all) und archaische System der WahlâmĂ€nnerâ (electoral vote) hat diesen dreifachen Sieg möglich gemacht. Hillary Clinton hat zwar, wie schon einst Al Gore gegen George W. Bush, eine hauchdĂŒnne Mehrheit der WĂ€hlerstimmen (popular vote) erhalten, diese Mehrheit wurde jedoch ĂŒber das Mehrheitswahlsystem in eine deutliche Niederlage transformiert. WĂ€hrend Trump 290 WahlmĂ€nner zugeschrieben wurden, sind es fĂŒr Hilary Clinton gerade noch 232. Die Wahlbeteiligung lag bei den PrĂ€sidentschaftswahlen bei mageren 55,6 Prozent, fĂŒr die Wahlen zum Kongress steht die traditionell niedrigere Wahlbeteiligung noch nicht fest.
Pippa Norris, die renommierte Demokratie- und Wahlforscherin der Harvard University, untersucht seit Jahren die IntegritĂ€t von Wahlen in Demokratien und Autokratien. Die USA schneiden mit dem 52. Rang unter 153 LĂ€ndern seit Jahren denkbar schlecht ab. Deutschland befindet sich auf Platz 7. Vor den USA rangieren LĂ€nder wie Kroatien, Griechenland, Argentinien, die Mongolei oder SĂŒdafrika. Grund fĂŒr die mindere IntegritĂ€t der US-Wahlen sind unter anderem der massive Einfluss finanzstarker privater Spender auf Kampagnen und Wahlprogramme, die hĂ€ufige manipulative Ănderung von Wahlbezirken, die vor allem Unterschichten und Afroamerikaner faktisch diskriminierende Registrierung in WĂ€hlerlisten, die extrem niedrige Wahlbeteiligung bei Kongresswahlen, das Mehrheitswahlsystem selbst und die fĂŒr die Technologie- und Wirtschaftsmacht geradezu beschĂ€mend unzureichende Anzahl von Wahlstationen. WĂ€hlerschlangen wie in Bangladesch gehören zum gewohnten Bild US-amerikanischer Wahlen.
Die amerikanische Demokratie ist bekannt fĂŒr ihre umfangreichen âchecks and balancesâ. Besonders die Machtkontrollen sind stark ausgebaut: der Kongress besitzt nicht automatisch die gleiche parteipolitische FĂ€rbung wie die prĂ€sidentielle Exekutive; die amerikanische Bundesregierung hat im Trennföderalismus der USA eine vergleichsweise schwache Position gegenĂŒber den Einzelstaaten; der Oberste Gerichtshof (Supreme Court) ist eines der mĂ€chtigsten Verfassungsgerichte der USA. Die Exekutivkontrolle durch den Kongress werden allerdings zunĂ€chst einmal niedrig sein, wenn es Trump gelingt, das ihm entfremdete Establishment der Republikanischen Partei hinter sich zu bringen. Auch bei der Besetzung des vakanten Postens fĂŒr das höchste Gericht hat Trump schon klar gemacht, dass er handverlesen einen konservativen Kandidaten nominieren wird. Die gegenwĂ€rtige politische Konstellation legt dem PrĂ€sidenten Trump weniger ZĂŒgel an, als dies in der Verfassung vorgesehen war. Den âmainstream mediaâ (Trump) und den zivilgesellschaftlichen âwatchdogsâ wird eine wichtige Kontrollfunktion zukommen. Ein Demokratisierungs- und Toleranzschub darf fĂŒr die amerikanische Demokratie in den nĂ€chsten Jahren nicht erwartet werden.
Ist Trump ein Rechtspopulist?
Ist Trump tatsĂ€chlich ein rechter Ideologe oder nur ein demagogisch populistischer VerfĂŒhrer im Wahlkampf, der nun im Amte von den Institutionen, seinen Beratern und der öffentlichen Meinung gezĂ€hmt werden kann? Trump gilt als relativ beratungsresistent und die kontrollierenden Institutionen sind in populistischen Zeiten und einer prĂ€sidentiellen Mehrheit im Kongress weniger effektiv als uns dies die reine Verfassungstheorie lehren will. Wichtiger noch ist die Frage, wer sind die WĂ€hler hinter Trump? Was bedeuten sie fĂŒr die Demokratie? Erste WĂ€hleranalysen deuten an, dass Trump vor allem unter den MĂ€nnern, weniger Gebildeten, WeiĂen und den auĂerhalb der Metropolen lebenden Amerikanern ĂŒberproportional viele WĂ€hler hat. Sie sind die Verlierer der ökonomischen Globalisierung und gehören der unteren HĂ€lfte der amerikanischen Gesellschaft an. Es ist das demographisch, wirtschaftlich und kulturell bedrohte Amerika. Man mag aber bezweifeln, dass die wirtschaftliche Lage das treibende Motiv hinter der Stimmabgabe war. Itâs not the economy stupid!
Parallelen tun sich zu den rechtspopulistischen Parteien in West- und Osteuropa auf. Die etablierten politischen KrĂ€fte, die Medien, die Fortschrittlichen, die besser Gestellten und der Chorus der âVernĂŒnftigenâ ist sich zu hĂ€ufig selbst genug, die eigenen Interessen und ihre kulturelle Moderne zu reprĂ€sentieren. Konservativen BefĂŒrchtungen ĂŒber den âVerlust der Heimatâ, der Stadtviertel, der vertrauten Kultur, der Nation, der staatlichen SouverĂ€nitĂ€t, der Bedeutung von Grenzen oder der Neudefinition der Ehe wurden nicht nur mit guten Argumenten entgegen getreten. Es erfolgten vielmehr Belehrungen und nicht selten der moralische Ausschluss aus dem offiziösen Diskurs, wenn âunkorrekteâ Begriffe oder Ideen geĂ€uĂert wurden. Ein kosmopolitischer Geist mit ĂŒberschieĂender MoralitĂ€t dominierte die Diskurse. Wie die Brexit-BefĂŒrworter einfach nur von gestern sind und die schöne neue Welt der Supranationalisierung nicht verstehen, so sind die WĂ€hler der rechtspopulistischen Parteien vor allem die moralisch und kulturell ZurĂŒckgebliebenen unserer Gesellschaft. In Westeuropa haben rechtspopulistische Unternehmer mit diesen ZurĂŒckgebliebenen 10 bis 30 Prozent der Wahlberechtigten hinter sich gebracht. In Polen und vor allem in Ungarn hat der Rechtspopulismus seine MehrheitsfĂ€higkeit angedeutet. Nun die USA, die Vormacht des demokratischen Westens. Aber nicht alle WĂ€hler Trumps sind antidemokratische Rassisten, Sexisten und Chauvinisten. Das Bedenkliche jedoch ist, dass es dem Kandidaten Trump eher genĂŒtzt als geschadet hat, mit intoleranten Parolen gegen das Establishment, gegen die âpolitische Klasse in Washingtonâ, gegen âdie da obenâ und fĂŒr den âWandelâ anzutreten. Symptomatisch war die Abschlusskundgebung der Demokraten am 7. November in Philadelphia: Mit Obama, der First Lady, dem Ex-PrĂ€sidenten Bill Clinton, Bruce Springsteen und Jon Bon Jovi war eine beeindruckende ReprĂ€sentation des Establishments âon stageâ â die BĂŒrger des Staates Pennsylvania stimmten indes mehrheitlich fĂŒr den AuĂenseiter Donald Trump.
Wir, die besser Gestellten und Etablierten unserer zivilen und politischen Gesellschaft, sind behĂ€big, selbstgefĂ€llig und taub âgegen die da untenâ geworden â ökonomisch wie kulturell. Die Arbeiterschaft ist zu den rechten Populisten ĂŒbergelaufen. Wir verteidigen das Bestehende, die Rechte hat unsere einstigen Schlachtrufe des Bruches und Wandels ĂŒbernommen. Der Wahlerfolg des Donald J. Trump muss deshalb auch als Warnschuss gedeutet werden. Eine reprĂ€sentative Demokratie hat möglichst alle zu reprĂ€sentieren. Sie muss auch reaktionĂ€re oder konservative Kritik auĂerhalb der politischen Korrektheit zulassen. Dies spricht nicht gegen unser kĂ€mpferisches Eintreten fĂŒr Freiheit, Gleichheit und die kulturellen Modernisierungen der letzten Jahrzehnte. Ganz im Gegenteil. Sie mĂŒssen verteidigt werden. Aber Belehrungen von oben, moralische Intransigenz oder der diskursive Ausschluss der âNicht-ReprĂ€sentierbarenâ spielen nur den Rechtspopulisten in die HĂ€nde.
Demokratie spielend gestalten â Ein Fall fĂŒr das Demokratiebarometer
Mit dem Seminar âWe the people: Demokratie spielend gestaltenâ (Syllabus) haben Dr. Saskia Ruth und Dr. Rebecca Welge im FrĂŒhjahrssemester 2016 ein neues Lehrkonzept am Institut fĂŒr Politikwissenschaft der UniversitĂ€t ZĂŒrich getestet. Das Seminar verfolgte das Ziel gemeinsam mit Studierenden ein Demokratiespiel zu entwickeln, das die Kernelemente der Demokratie und ihre Zielkonflikte abbildet. Das Spiel soll spĂ€ter als angeleitetes Bildungsspiel in der UniversitĂ€tslehre eingesetzt werden können. Dabei standen sowohl die anwendungsorientierte BeschĂ€ftigung mit klassischen politikwissenschaftlichen Demokratietheorien als auch die interaktive Einbindung der Studenten in den Prozess der Spielentwicklung im Mittelpunkt.
Basierend auf zwei aktuellen Projekten der empirischen Demokratieforschung – dem Demokratiebarometer und dem Varieties of Democracy – arbeiteten die Studenten in der ersten HĂ€lfte des Seminars die relevanten Kernelemente, Funktionen und Institutionen der Demokratie heraus. Gleichzeitig identifizierten sie verschiedene Demokratieperspektiven als mögliche Spieler.
    Fotos: Saskia P. Ruth & Rebecca Welge
Darauf aufbauend begannen die Teilnehmer in der zweiten HĂ€lfe des Seminars mit der Umsetzung ihrer gewonnenen Fachkenntnisse in thematisch relevante Spielmechanismen. Mit der UnterstĂŒtzung des Beraters fĂŒr Bildungsspielentwicklung Robert Lovell konnten die Studenten dann in einem abschliessenden Spieleworkshop Ideen in die Praxis und in mehrere Spielvarianten umsetzen. Dazu wurde vor Ort gebastelt, debattiert, angepasst und ausprobiert.
Ein Fazit zum Seminar: Mit hochmotivierten Teilnehmern ist vieles möglich! Gemeinsam nahmen sie die ersten Schritte in Richtung eines thematisch fundierten und spielerisch ansprechenden Demokratiespiels. Einen Erfahrungsbericht zum Seminar gibt es unter diesem Link.
The securitization of stability and the demise of the Arab Uprisings
This post was originally published on the Blog of the Middle East Center at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) on March 18th, 2015.
The uprisings that swept across the Arab World in 2011 where remarkable in many ways. They constituted a serious challenge to the authority of the most coherent bloc of authoritarian regimes. During spring that year, the streets across Arab capitals where filled with people expressing their grievances and demanding change. The protests broke with the orientalist and paternalistic perception of ârespectedâ authoritarian leaders. The Arab uprisings also taught us that demography matters. It was the disenfranchised youth that initiated the protests in most places, a faction of society that never before appeared on the stage as a relevant political actor. Young Arabs assembled and screamed the same slogans towards the parliaments and palaces from Sanaa to Rabat.